Glossary: list of terms
The below list provides the definition of soil related keywords (glossary). It will be continuously updated throughout the project lifetime. Each term will be also translated into 14 languages.
Alphabetical List of Terms
A
Acidification
The process in which the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil gradually increases, caused by removal of (slightly alkaline) crop produce, leaching and the use of acidifying N fertilizer types, accelerated or insufficiently compensated by the natural constituents of a soil among which the parent material.
Adsorption
Process by which atoms, molecules or ions are retained on the surfaces of solids by chemical or physical bonding.
Agriculture
The production of plants and animals useful to man, involving soil cultivation and the breeding and management of crops and livestock
Agroferestry
A type of land use that combines production on the same plot of land, from annual agricultural activities (such as crops and pasture) and from delayed long-term production by trees (for example timber and services). This is obtained either by planting trees on agricultural land or by cropping (for example after thinning) on forested land. Plots that combine arable intercrops with forestry trees are silvoarable plots, while wooded plots with pasture under the tree canopy are known as silvopastoral plots.
Antropogenic
Generated by humans. If focusing on soil, it’s used to indicate conditions, disturbances, or stresses that are created by human activities.
Arable land
The total areas under temporary crops, temporary meadows and pastures, and land with temporary fallow
B
Base saturation
The degree to which a soil having cation-exchange properties is saturated with exchangeable bases (sum of Ca, Mg, Na, K), expressed as a percentage of the total cation-exchange capacity.
Biodiversity
The Variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part. This includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.
Biomass
Organic material of biological origin (plants and animals). The term can be used for agro-industrial effluents and waste, energy crops, materials harvested from nature (e.g. wood) or the organic fraction of waste. Biomass can be used to improve soil fertility and health, to increase carbon storage or as an alternative to fossil raw materials in biorefineries and industrial processes, as a raw material for the production of biofuels.
C
Carbon cycle
Sequence of transformations whereby carbon dioxide is converted to organic forms by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, recycled through the biosphere (with partial incorporation into sediments), and ultimately returned to its original state through respiration or combustion
Carbon management
Series of practices that aim to retain carbon in the soil and avoid losses
Cation exchange capacity
The capacity of soil to hold nutrients for plant use. Specifically, CEC is the amount of negative charges available on clay and humus to hold positively charged ions. Effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) is reported for acid soils (pH<5). Expressed as centimoles of charge per kilogram of soil (cmolc/kg)
Compost
The material used to supply organic matter or plant nutrients to a soil, resulting from composting.
Composting
The aerobic microbial decomposition of organic materials, such as agricultural wastes, urban organic waste, and mowing residues. This process is typically accomplished by regularly turning and aerating organic biomass stored in heaps with a geometry that promotes effective aeration. During this transformation, the most readily degradable organic fractions undergo oxidation and are converted into stable organic matter, which can be utilised in agriculture as a fertiliser and as a method of biological control. Concomitantly, the product may become less bulky due to the loss of water and also more manageable due to homogenization. In addition to these benefits, composting helps decrease the initial phytotoxicity of the organic materials used, disinfects the materials, and reduces the germinability of any weed seeds.
Conservation agriculture
A farming method including minimum soil disturbance (no tillage, minimum tillage, reduced tillage, strip tillage, direct drill), crop rotation, and permanent soil cover (http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/).
Controlled traffic
Using the same traffic lanes for machinery used for different applications within one year and the same traffic lanes across years, usually supported by a sat-nav system, in order to reduce soil compaction.
Conventional farming
A farming method that includes the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides and genetically modified organisms, allowing this type of farms to be less depending on cultural (crop rotation, inclusion of crops fixing atmospheric N), biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity.
D-F
Denitrification
A process performed by a few species of anaerobic soil bacteria in which nitrite or nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O). Both N2 and N2O are volatile and lost to the atmosphere.
Desertification
The process in which relatively dry land becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife either directly via climate change or indirectly via soil degradation resulting from poor management.
Drainage (natural)
The capacity of unaltered soils to drain water through percolation, as opposed to artificial drainage, which is commonly the result of artificial drainage or irrigation but may be caused by the sudden deepening of channels or the blocking of drainage outlets.
Ecosystem services
The contributions of ecosystems to benefits used in economic and other human activity. Ecosystem services can be broadly grouped under these three categories, following the United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA) Ecosystem Accounting: 1) Provisioning services, which represent the material and energy contributions generated by or in an ecosystem (i.e. fish or plants with pharmaceutical properties); 2) Regulating services, which result from the capacity of ecosystems to regulate climate, hydrologic and biochemical cycles, Earth surface processes, and a variety of biological processes; 3) Cultural services, which are generated from the physical settings, locations, or situations that give rise to intellectual and symbolic benefits obtained by people from ecosystems through recreation, knowledge development, relaxation, and spiritual reflection.
Edaphon
The community of soil organisms (microbes, fungi, nematodes, worms, insects, protozoa, etc.)
Electrical conductivity
Measure of a material’s ability to accommodate the transport of an electric charge and used as a measure of the salinity of the soil, and to estimate practical consequences for crops. EC of a soil suspension at a given soil to water ratio
Erossion
The wearing away of the land surface by water, 6 wind, ice, gravity or other natural or anthropogenic agents that abrade, detach and remove soil particles or rock material from one point on the earth’s surface, for deposition elsewhere, including gravitational creep and so called tillage erosion. Example of soil erosion catena after (6)
Eutrophication
Process through which a waterbody, such as a lake or a soil solution, becomes enriched with dissolved nutrients. This can be natural, but is often due to pollution. Eutrophication may result in algal blooms which finally promote anaerobic conditions which may harm fish life.
Evapotranspiration
The process by which water passes from a liquid to a vapour (gaseous) state through transpiration from vegetation, and evaporation from soil and plant surfaces. The rate of evapotranspiration is usually expressed in mm day-1; a distinction can be made between the potential evapotranspiration under unlimited availability of water and the actual evapotranspiration under limited availability.
Exhaustion
The gradual depletion of reserves of nutrients and organic matter in soils.
Extensification
The process of decreasing the use of capital and inputs (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, energy) relative to land area. Due to a decrease in inputs per land area the pressure on the environment may be decreased. A decrease in pesticides used, for instance, is likely to decrease the risk of pesticide run-off in surface and groundwater (‘loss per unit area’). However, the actual effect of a decrease in the use of inputs on the environment does not only depend on the amount of inputs used but also on how they are applied and the extent to which decreased inputs lead to lower production (‘loss per unit produce’). Therefore, extensification does not necessarily lead to an environmentally more benign situation.
Fallow
Cropland left idle in order to restore productivity through accumulation of moisture or organic matter. Summer fallow is common in regions of limited rainfall where cereal grains are grown. The soil is tilled for at least one growing season for weed control and decomposition of plant residue.
Fertilization
The application of mineral or organic compounds to maintain or increase soil fertility. In some cases, (e.g. liming) the purpose of fertilization is also to improve specific soil properties (pH, stability of soil structure).
Fertilizer replacement value
The extent to which a nutrient (N, P) in a manure or in a compost is as plant-available as thatnutrient in a common mineral equivalent applied according to good agricultural practices, usually expressed as kg per 100 kg applied = fertilizer equivalency = ratio of apparent recoveries* (or of apparent efficiencies**) of a nutrient (often N) from manure and from a commonly used mineral fertilizer equivalent.
Field capacity
The moisture condition where a soil contains the maximum amount of water that it can hold against gravity, and where further wetting will result in drainage. Following saturation, soils typically return to field capacity, when the rate of downward movement of water has substantially decreased, usually 1-3 days after rain or irrigation after the gravitational, or free, water has drained away. It is typically expressed as a mass or volume fraction of soil water or as a soil moisture deficit (SMD) of zero.
Functional land management
A conceptual framework for optimising the supply of soil-based ecosystem services, grouped together in five overarching soil functions, to the demands at a range of spatial scales, with a view to simultaneously meeting agronomic and environmental policy objectives. More info: Soil functions concept http://landmarkproject.eu/soil-functions-concept/
G-I
Green manure
Non-harvested crop grown in between two main crop seasons, intended to improve the soil fertility, generally not growing under N limitation due to the use of fertilizers and manures, or the ability to fix atmospheric N.
Groundwater
Freshwater found beneath the earth’s surface that fills the cavities of the earth’s crust (pores, crevices, etc. in soil, sand and rock) contiguously, – and that supplies wells and springs, excluding the water in the vadose (unsaturated) zone. The definition applies to all permanent and temporary water deposits, formed both artificially and naturally, of sufficient quality for at least seasonal use. Groundwater supplies are replenished, or recharged, by rain and melting snow, depending on climate conditions. They can usually be recovered from, or via, an underground formation.
Humification
Process whereby the carbon of organic residues is transformed and converted to humic substances through biochemical and abiotic processes.
Humus
The well decomposed, amorphous, stable fraction of the organic matter in mineral soils with a low specific weight and high surface area; usually composed of many organic compounds of high molecular weight and dark colour. A term often used synonymously with soil organic matter. Humus is important for soil fertility, and helps to bind soil particles and aggregates together.
Immobilisation
Conversion of water-soluble elements into organic compounds by soil biota.
infiltration
The movement of water passing the soil surface into the soil (as contrasted with percolation, which is movement of water through soil layers moving down to the aquifers, or out to rivers).
Intensification
The process of increasing the use of inputs (labour, information, energy, fertilizers, pesticides, machinery) relative to land area, to increase agricultural production per unit area. Intensification may increase the pressure on the environment, if it is comprised of an indiscriminate increase of the use of inputs without an associated increase in managerial input. A higher use of fertilizers and pesticides, for instance, may increase the risk of nutrient and pesticide run-off into surface and groundwater (‘loss per unit area’). However, the actual effect of the use of inputs on the environment does not only depend on the amount of inputs used but also on how they are applied and the extent to which they contribute to production increases (‘loss per unit produce’). Therefore, intensification does not necessarily need to lead to environmental degradation.
J-O
Knowledge and Education Actors
This group consists of academic and research institutions with a focus on soil science, agriculture, forestry or environmental studies, whose aim is to generate new knowledge and understanding related to soil governance issues, including soil health, sustainable land use, and conservation practices, through research, education, and outreach. Examples: Scientist, academics, researchers & students from universities, research institution, secondary education
Land health
The capacity of land, relative to its potential, to sustain the delivery of ecosystem services.
Manure
Manure is a type of fertilization composed of livestock excrements, as such or including
bedding material.
Mineralisation
The degradation of organically bound elements (N, P, S) by soil biota into plant available (inorganic) forms.
Monitoring soil quality
Tracking trends in quantitative indicators or the functional capacity of the soil in order to determine the success of management practices or the need for additional management changes. Monitoring involves the orderly collection, analysis, and interpretation of data from the same locations over time. (Compare to assessing.)
Mulching
Farming practice that involves covering the soil surface, typically with organic materials or plastic sheets, to promote soil and water conservation, control weeds, deter pests, and maintain favorable and stable conditions for plant growth.
Mycrrizae
Literally means “fungus root” and is a symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship between fungus and plant roots. The fungus supplies water and nutrients to the plant roots while the plant supplies carbohydrates. Plant roots typically can explore no more than 1% of the soil volume but with mycorrhizal fungus (which attach themselves to the plant root cell walls) association, approximately 20% of the soil volume may be explored. Over 80% of plants have a mycorrhizal association but these fungus populations are reduced by conventional tillage and high fertilizer applications of nitrogen and phosphorus.
Natural capital
Refers to both the living (e.g. fish stocks, forests) and non-living (e.g. minerals, energy resources) aspects of nature. It is the stock of ecosystems on Earth, including air, water, biodiversity, and geodiversity. This stock underpins our economy and society by producing value for people, both directly and indirectly. Goods and services provided to humans by sustainably managed natural capital include a range of social and environmental benefits, including clean air and water, climate change mitigation and adaptation, food, energy, places to live, materials for products, recreation, and protection from hazards.
No tillage
The key agronomic practice in Conservation Agriculture for annual crops. It is defined as a farming method that avoids disturbing the soil through tillage. In no-tillage, at least 30% of the area should be covered by plant residues immediately after crop establishment. Crops are sown using machinery capable of placing seeds through the plant residues from previous crops.
No-tillage is the primary agronomic practice that characterises Conservation Agriculture for annual crops, and it offers the highest level of soil conservation. This is because it completely eliminates mechanical tillage of the soil. Additionally, in arid climates, no-tillage helps retain water in the soil by reducing evaporation losses from the soil surface, which are typically increased by conventional tillage involving soil inversion.
Organic farming
Production system that avoids synthetic chemicals and promotes natural practices to grow crops and raise livestock. It prioritizes environmental and soil health while avoiding GMOs, synthetic pesticides, and antibiotics. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity, and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.
Organic fertilizer
Fertilizers consist of plant or animal based materials that result from byproducts or end products of naturally occurring processes, such as animal manure and composted organic matter.
Oxidation
The addition of oxygen, removal of hydrogen, or the removal of electrons from an element or compound. In the environment, organic matter is oxidized to more stable substances. Oxidation is the opposite of ‘reduction’. Oxidation of organic matter is termed ‘burning’, and that of iron ‘rusting’.
P-Q
Plant available water
Total amount of water in the root zone that is available for evapotranspiration, it is water retained in the soil between the states of field capacity and permanent wilting point, usually expressed in mm. The more plant available water, the greater the productivity and biological activity of the soil. Graphical interpretation at (5) https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-18923-4_6/figures/4
Pollutant
Substance or agent present in the soil (or groundwater) which, due to its properties, amount or concentration, causes adverse impacts on soil functions and negatively affects soil biota and other living beings.
Protection of soil
Conscious process necessary for soil and soil properties preservation realised at different levels (personal, local, national, continental) and using information obtained by soil research. Sustainability is the result of this process.
R
redox
Reduction
The addition of hydrogen, removal of oxygen, or the addition of electrons to an element or compound. Under anaerobic conditions (where there is no dissolved oxygen present) such as in ‘gley’ soils, sulphur compounds are reduced to odour-producing hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and other compounds. Reduction is the opposite of oxidation.
Residue
Any organic product generated during the production, processing or consumption of crops, ranging from roots, stubbles, straw and leaves, to industrial and urban ‘wastes’.
Resilience
The ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or recover from the effects of a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner, including ensuring the preservation, restoration, or improvement of its essential basic structures and functions.
Resistance
The ability of an ecosystem to withstand a stress or perturbation without adverse changes to its structure or function, thereby maintaining an equilibrium state.
S
Salinization
Accumulation of soluble salts (more soluble than gypsum) in the upper soil layers (saline soil = soil containing enough soluble salts to negatively affect most crop plants, commonly 4000 μS m-1).
Slury
A liquid mixture of livestock urine and faeces, with or without some water and or bedding material.
Soil
The biologically active, porous medium that has developed in the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust and is one of the principal substrata of life on Earth. Soil is a complex, dynamic, and living system that is formed over time through the interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. It is composed of mineral particles of varying sizes, organic matter, water, and air, all of which interact to form a matrix that supports plant growth and provides a habitat for soil organisms.
Soil aggregates
Soil aggregate consisting of two or more soil particles bound together by various forces. Soil aggregates are soil peds of a range of shapes and sizes.
Soil biodiversity
The variety of life below ground, from genes and species to the communities they form, as well as the ecological complexes to which they contribute and to which they belong, from soil micro-habitats to landscape.
Soil capability
The intrinsic capacity of a soil to deliver/fulfill soil functions.
Soil carbon sequestration
The capacity of a soil store carbon in a non labile form with the aim of reducing the CO2 concentration.
Soil compaction
Changing the nature of the soil such that there is a decrease in the volume of voids between soil particles or aggregates; it is manifested as an increase in bulk density and a severely compacted soil can become significantly less permeable and less aerated. Manmade compaction is caused by poaching (trampling of animal hooves repeatedly) or by the passage of heavy machinery. Other typical examples are “plough pans” (plough sole or traffic pan) which can be formed due to tillage, and which can negatively affect root development and drainage.
Soil condition
Soil condition refers to the state of the soil, which includes its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics and the processes and interactions that connect them; and which in turn determine the capacity of the soil to support ecosystem services.
Soil contamination
The presence of a chemical or substance in the soil in a concentration that may be harmful to human health or the environment. Contamination may have a direct toxic effect on the plants, animals or humans living in, on, or from that soil, or have an indirect toxic effect due to accumulation in the whole trophic chain.
Soil degradation
Negative process often accelerated by human activities (improper soil use and cultivation practices, soil sealing) that leads to deterioration of soil properties and functions or destruction of soil as a whole, e.g. compaction, erosion, salinisation.
Soil ecosystem services
The soil-related subset of ecosystem services, directly and quantifiably controlled or provided by soils and their chemical, physical and biological properties, processes and functions.
Soil Fertility
The ability of the soil to supply essential nutrients and soil water in adequate amoounts and proportions for plant growth and reproduction. Characterized by favourable chemical, physical, and biological properties as a habitat for plant growth.
Soil functions
Ecosystem functions are directly and indirectly associated with soil. Soils perform many functions, and healthy soil gives us clean air and water, bountiful crops and forests, productive rangeland, diverse wildlife, and beautiful landscapes. Soil does all this by performing five essential functions:
1.Nutrient Cycling—Soil stores, moderates the release of, and cycles nutrients and other elements. During these biogeochemical processes, analogous to the water cycle, nutrients can be transformed into plant available forms, held in the soil, or even lost to air or water.
2.Water Relations—Soil can regulate the drainage, flow, and storage of water and solutes, which includes nitrogen, phosphorus, pesticides, and other nutrients and compounds dissolved in the water. With proper functioning, soil partitions water for groundwater recharge and for use by plants and soil animals.
3.Biodiversity and Habitat—Soil supports the growth of a variety of plants, animals, and soil microorganisms, usually by providing a diverse physical, chemical, and biological habitat.
4.Filtering and Buffering—Soil acts as a filter to protect the quality of water, air, and other resources. Toxic compounds or excess nutrients can be neutralized, transformed, or otherwise made unavailable to plants and animals.
5. Physical Stability and Support—Soil has the ability to maintain its porous structure and regulate passage of air, gases, and water, withstand erosive forces, support heavy loads, and provide a medium for plant roots.
Soil health
The continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, promote the quality of air and water environments, and maintain plant, animal, and human health.
Soil health assesement
The evaluation of the health of the soil based on the measurement or estimation of soil descriptors.
Soil organic matter
Classified into two major groups composing a humic and non-humic substances. Soil organic matter is thermodynamically unstable and is part of the natural balance between production, decomposition, transformation, and resynthesis of various organic substances. The humified fraction is composed of humic, fulvic, and humin and is the most stable. The non humic portion is the relatively unstable and most labile fraction and is most easily decomposed.
Soil organic matter loss
Decline of organic matter content in one or more soil layers when the annual loss of organic matter (e.g. due to oxidation or erosion) is insufficiently compensated for by the annual gain of organic matter, resulting from crop residues, composts and manures.
Soil productivity
The capacity of a soil to produce plant biomass, providing food, feed, fibre, wood, fuel and ornemental resources within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries.
Soil quality
The degree to which the inherent properties of a soil facilitate its functions in natural or managed ecosystems, maintain plant and animal productivity, preserve or enhance water and air quality, and provide favorable conditions for human health and settlements. A soil with ‘high soil quality’ can deliver the desired functions, whereas a soil with ‘low soil quality’ can only deliver those functions at sub optimal rates.
Soil quality indicators
A measure of a soil’s functional state. Scientists use soil quality indicators to evaluate how well soil functions since soil function often cannot be directly measured. Measuring soil quality is an exercise in identifying soil properties that are responsive to management practices, affect or correlate with environmental outcomes, and are capable of being precisely measured within certain technical and economic constraints. Soil quality indicators may be qualitative (e.g. drainage is fast) or quantitative (infiltration = 5 cm/hr). Ideal soil quality indicators should (1) correlate well with ecosystem processes; (2) integrate soil physical, chemical, and biological properties and processes; (3) be accessible to many users; and (4) be sensitive to management and natural processes.
Soil regeneration
An intentional activity aimed at reversing soil from degraded to healthy condition.
Soil resilience
The capacity of a soil to recover its functional capacity after a disturbance.
Soil sealing
The process of covering of a soil by buildings, or types of artificial material which may be very slowly permeable to water (e.g. asphalt or concrete). Soil sealing can cause rapid overland flow after precipitation where water cannot soak away leading to potential flooding. A soil is unable to function effectively when sealed.
Soil security
Soil security has been defined as the maintenance or improvement of the world’s soil resources so that they can provide sufficient food, fibre, and fresh water, contribute to energy sustainability and climate stability, maintain biodiversity, and deliver overall environmental protection and ecosystem services.
Soil structure
Combination or arrangement of soil primary particles into secondary units or peds (composed of macroaggregates and microaggregates). The secondary units are classified on the basis of size (microaggregates are the smallest and macroaggregates are the largest) and shape. Soils with good structural stability typically have more macroaggregates and macropores while soils with poor structural stability have more microaggregates and micropores. Compacted soils have poor structure and more microaggregates and micropores.
Soil texture
The relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in a mass of soil. Texture can be coarse (sand particles predominate), medium (equal parts of sand, silt, and clay), or fine (clay particles predominate). The basic textural classes, in order of increasing proportion of fine particles, are: sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay, and clay. The sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam classes may be further divided by specifying “coarse,” “fine,” or “very fine.”
Soil texture diagram
Diagram allotting names to soils with specific portions of sand, silt and clay (http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3794e.pdf)
T-Z
Tillage
The agricultural preparation of soil by a mechanical process, which may involve various activities like digging, stirring, and overturning. These activities are carried out to prepare the soil, ensuring it achieves suitable physical conditions for sowing and the growth of crops. Tillage serves various purposes, such as breaking compactions, incorporating crop residues, manures, fertilizers, or weeds, preparing the seedbed, and controlling weeds.
Topsoil
The surface soil horizon (A) which is modified when cultivated, and designated Ap.
Urban agriculture
Integration of urban agriculture and food systems within cities, including the growing/producing of food, feed or fibre in and around cities.
Weathering
The process by which materials in rocks or other deposits are broken down into smaller parts and ultimately their constituents. An example is ‘freeze thaw’ expansion and cracking. There are physical, chemical and biological weathering processes.
Referencess
1. The Nature-Based Solutions for Soil Management – NBSOIL EU Project, Glossary availalble at: https://nbsoil.eu/glossary/
2. Soil Health Bechmarks, EU Project 2022, Glossary available at: https://soilhealthbenchmarks.eu/glossary/
3. SoilCare Project (2023) Glossary. Available at: https://www.soilcare-project.eu/resources/glossary (Accessed: 28 August 2024).
4. Landmark, EU Project 2015, Glossary available at https://landmarkproject.eu/landmark-glossary/# (Accessed: 28 August 2024).
5. Huntley, B.J. (2023). Soil, Water and Nutrients. In: Ecology of Angola. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18923-4_6
(https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-18923-4_6#citeas )
6. Radziuk, H., Świtoniak. M. (2022). The Effect of Erosional Transformation of Soil Cover on the Stability of Soil Aggregates within Young Hummocky Moraine Landscapes in Northern Poland. Agronomy 12, no. 11: 2595. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112595.
7. Hoorman, J., Reeder, R., Sundermeier, A., Islam R., Aziz, I., (2012). Soil Terminology and Definitions, Ohio State University extension. https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/SAG-19 (Accesed: 29 august 2024)
